Journey to the Far Side of the World

When William Winder enlisted in September of 1839, part of the 21st regiment was already in India, having arrived there from Tasmania earlier that year.  Additional elements of the regiment followed from Australia during the first half of 1840 (they had been on convict escort duty) while William was settling into the supposedly boring routine of garrison life at Chatham.  At some point that year, William learned that he and others at the depot had been ordered to join the regiment in India.

Although intended to show clipper ship routes, this map gives a sense of the 1840's voyage to India

How did William react to the news?  One British soldier (Donald Featherstone) claimed that Victorian soldiers considered assignment overseas as good news.  Featherstone wrote that all ranks, not just officers anxious for fame and glory, wanted to be on active service, not garrison duty.  This was supposedly because of the boring routine of "home soldiering" with no real "outlet for individual enterprise and responsibility."  Anything William knew about service in India was limited to what he heard from his fellow soldiers.  Human nature being what it is, some of this most likely was intended to impress or scare him with the risks and dangers that lay ahead.  He also probably heard about the less expensive cost of living living as well as the financial opportunities, both legal and otherwise.

Even if William was pleased with the assignment to India, it seems almost certain that as he watched England disappear over the horizon, he wondered if he would ever return.  I had those same doubts when I left for Vietnam in 1971 and, regardless of age or generation, it must be impossible to avoid such feelings.  In William's case, not coming back was more than a possibility since the majority of the British soldiers sent to India never returned to England.  Eventually, however, William needed to turn his attention to adjusting to his temporary new home.

East Indiaman 'Repulse' built about 1820

Although it was temporary, it was a relatively long temporary.  William and his compatriots most likely sailed on a four masted, East Indiaman.  In addition to the slower speed of a wind driven sailing ship, this was prior to the opening of the Suez Canal which made the trip even longer.  Although some travelers to India sailed through the Mediterranean to Egypt and then made a land journey to the next port, most soldiers took the far longer route down the west coast of Africa, around the Cape of Good Hope and across the Indian Ocean.

My father, Hank Zinn, traveled to India in World War II by boat crossing the Atlantic and the Mediterranean to the Suez Canal and Indian Ocean.  That trip over a longer distance, but in an much faster ship took about 35 days including about a week in different ports along the way.  William's journey, on the other hand, took between 100-120 days which meant living in the close confines of the ship for almost one-third of a year. My father kept a diary of his time overseas and in describing the voyage to India, he wrote, "I can't believe there could be so much water."  One can only imagine how William, who had probably never even seen the sea before, must have felt.

East Indiaman 'Prince of Wales' built in 1842 specifically as a troop transport ship

My father also described how once on the ship, he and 150 other men crammed themselves into a compartment of three tiered bunks which he compared to a "sweat box," calling it unbearable.  William, most likely, would have found those quarters luxurious compared to sleeping in hammocks as close together as "fingers on our hands."   At least William had been prepared for tight quarters by his experience in the barracks at Chatham.  As William settled into his small space with a low ceiling, two decks below the surface, he must have been glad, he was under 5'6".

While life in the Chatham barracks prepared him for communal living in very limited space, the constant darkness along with the odor of "putrid bilge water" (don't ask) were new features that took some getting used.  The assault on the eyes and nose was accompanied by challenges for the ears, the "grating noise" of the creaking of the ship's timbers.  All of these negatives became worse in the heat of the tropics, especially if the ship was becalmed which could happen for days on end.  Unlike barracks life, the ship board experience did not include smoke filled rooms as smoking was forbidden because of the fire hazard.  Surprisingly the food was better than in garrison, to the point that most men put on weight during the voyage.

Calcutta about 1850

My father killed a lot of time on his voyage by reading, an option, not available to Williams.  Playing cards and singing were the only other two alternatives described as being available to British soldiers.  To fill some of the time and probably to maintain some sort of discipline, "parade," or mandatory formations were held twice a day, once for health checks and once for muster or attendance.  The health checks were no formality as one of the most feared diseases was cholera which could have a devastating effect on a closely confined, captive population.  It's hard to visualize what William's experience was like - seemingly endless days, nothing on the horizon, but water, increasingly hot and uncomfortable temperatures, little, if anything to do.  He probably thought the voyage would never end.  But finally one day, the ship reached Calcutta - William Winder had arrived in India!

In the Ranks

Upon arrival at the regimental depot at Chatham, William and his fellow recruits were quickly introduced to the realities of army life.  Exchanging their worn and probably ragged civilian clothes for new, uncomfortable and perhaps ill-fitting uniforms removed any lingering doubts about the magnitude of their changed circumstances. Home in this new world consisted of barracks built during the 1790's, small red brick buildings constructed for "internal control," and definitely not for comfort. The forbidding structures were laid out in a square intended to keep soldiers in by controlling access and egress.  The men lived in a large open room where they slept, ate, and smoked.  Smoking was so prevalent that on one occasion, an officer entering a 72' by 36' room holding 48 men, could not see any of them because of the smoke.

Chatham about 1831

Instead of beds, the men slept on thin straw filled mattresses or straw filled wooden "cribs" with all of five inches between sleeping soldiers.  William may have felt the army preferable to the workhouse, but the workhouse inmate was allotted more space as were convicts.  In fact, government regulations allocated soldiers less than one-half of the space provided for convicts.  Reportedly the barracks smelled of pipe clay, damp clothing, lamp oil, dish cloths, soft soap as well as butter and cheese parings, not to mention other things better left unmentioned.  William was probably used to rough, crowded living accommodations, but nothing had prepared him for this.

In that regard, it probably goes without saying that sanitary facilities were primitive so we'll just leave it at that.  Shaving was not a problem as most soldiers wore beards.  What washing did take place was performed at an outside pump or from a communal tub which had other far less hygienic uses.  Such minimal attempts at cleanliness usually took place right after wake up at 5:00 in the summer or 7:00 in the winter before going on duty at 5:30 or 7:30 respectively.  Duty was dominated by "drill," learning individual and unit movements which had practical application in battle.  Initially William and other raw recruits went through the equivalent of basic training which was "rigorous and repetitious" and could last up to six months.

19th Century Military Barracks 

While the primary focus of William's training was how to be a soldier, there was one aspect that was very different from modern military training - the history and tradition of his unit - the 21st Regiment of Foot.  Many British regiments have long and glorious histories going back centuries.  The 21st, for example, was formed in 1678 as the Earl of Man's Regiment of Foot.  Shortly thereafter it was renamed the 21st Scots Fusiliers ( a fusilier is a light musket used only by select units).  The regiment's number signifies its seniority within the army, the lower the number, the older the regiment.

 In its distinguished history prior to 1839, the 21st had served in many wars including the American Revolution and the War of 1812.  In the latter conflict, it had taken part in capturing Washington, D.C., but also suffered defeat at New Orleans at the hands of the American army commanded by Andrew Jackson.  Today over three centuries later, the 21st still exists as the Royal Highland Fusiliers.  Given such long histories, British regiments are in a sense immortal, no matter how often individuals come and go, the regiment lives on.  The scene in the Errol Flynn movie, "They Died With Their Boots On," where they adopt the song "Gary Owen" as their theme song illustrates the point (www.youtube.com/watch?v=4m7RPjQxjmA).  All of this contributed to regimental pride and Esprit de Corps that was passed on to new recruits, both in training and on active duty.

Colors of 21st Regiment of Foot 

Since the discipline and communal living must have been a major culture shock for William, we can only hope he wasn't too let down by how the food and pay differed from the recruiting pitch.  A soldier's daily pay had been increased in 1797 when it reached a shilling a day where it would remain for the next 70 years so William never received a pay raise in his over 22 years of active service.  At 20 shillings to the pound, the pay rate would have equaled just over 18 pounds per year.  However, unlike Union army soldiers who received pay plus food, plus uniforms, plus medical care, a British soldier's pay was "stopped", that is reduced, for a whole range of things including food, medical care and new equipment.  Many new recruits didn't get paid for months until up front expenses, conveniently unmentioned during the recruiting process, were repaid.  The unfairness of the system received some minimal recognition in 1847 when it became mandatory that a solider be paid a minimum of 10 pence per day.

Victorian Army Barracks at Great Yarmouth 

Although soldiers effectively paid for their food, that did little, if anything, for the quality or quantity.  For many years there were only two meals per day, breakfast and dinner (lunch).  Fortunately for William, in 1840, after he enlisted, an evening or tea meal was added.  This was also long before mess halls with full time cooks so soldiers were divided into groups of 12, given food to cook for themselves which they ate at communal tables in the barracks.  Both breakfast and the tea meal (the latter was served about 5:00) consisted of bread with small beer or tea.  Dinner served at noon was a more substantial meal of boiled beef and potatoes, with the quality of the beef sometimes more than a little questionable.  Soldiers, of course, had the option of buying food, that is, if there was anything left of their pay.

One of the many unknowns of William Winder's story is what he knew about the army and army life before taking that fateful step.  Obviously he couldn't read about it so his only source of information was verbal, but it seems doubtful, he knew many soldiers before enlisting.  One thing he most likely didn't know was that about one-third of the army, was serving outside of England, with 29 regiments in India alone.  It's even possible that before enlisting, William had never even heard of India.  But at some point after joining the 21st, William found out that he and the rest of the regiment were about to embark on an ocean voyage half-way around the world to just that very place.

"Taking the Queen's Shilling"

Other than birth, marriage and death, it's hard to say with certainty where any person was on a specific day in Victorian England.  In the case of William Winder, there is at least one other day where we know for sure where he was.  On September 26, 1839, William Winder was in Coventry, England, about 85 miles slightly northwest of Horsley.

Why was William in Coventry?  A laborer, unmarried (as far as we know) and probably unemployed, or at least underemployed, William most likely left Horsley looking for work and followed it wherever he found it.  By the end of September with the harvest nearing an end, William faced the challenge of supporting himself over the winter months.  The step he took was a drastic one - a "game changer" in modern parlance, for on that fateful day, William Winder "took the Queen's shilling" by enlisting in the 21st Regiment of Foot.

To appreciate the magnitude of William's decision, we have to recognize how differently military service was perceived during Victorian times.  First of all, the British army in the 1840's and 1850's was quite small equal to only about 1% of the population so army service was neither a common choice nor a widely shared experience.  Yet at the same time, the army constantly needed men to the tune of 11-12,000 per year due to death, discharge and disability.

Recruiting volunteers was difficult, if for no other reason that enlistment was theoretically for life or, in practice, 25 years.  In addition the public attitude towards the army was a far cry from today or at least what we like to think it is today.  After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, there was no real threat of invasion and, if there was, the primary responsibilities fell to the navy.  While the navy, however, was pretty much out of sight and, therefore, out of mind, the army was in sight and in minds that were ambivalent about its value.  Although it comes from a later time, Rudyard Kipling' s poem, "Tommy Atkins," speaks eloquently to the issue.

"Yes, makin’ mock o’ uniforms that guard you while you sleep

Is cheaper than them
An’ hustlin’ drunken soldiers when they’re goin’ large a bit

Is five times better business than paradin’ in full kit.

Then it’s Tommy this, an’ Tommy that, an’ “Tommy, ‘ow’s yer soul?”

But it’s “Thin red line of ‘eroes” when the drums begin to roll,
.
Is cheaper than them

It's probably reasonable to say William was typical of the men recruited into the British army at this time. Fairly short at 5' 5/8" with gray eyes and brown hair, his lack of literacy was shared with the majority of his peers.  The army reportedly preferred "respectable docile country lads" and there is no reason to doubt William matched this description.  Certainly like the majority of his fellow privates, he was very familiar with hard work in all kinds of weather and conditions.  Now, however, he would experience not just hard work, but military training and discipline and adventures probably beyond his wildest imagination.The drums begin to roll, my boys, the drums begin to roll,

O it’s “Thin red line of ‘eroes” when the drums begin to roll."

"Tommy Atkins" by Rudyard Kipling 

Hard Times - Gloucestershire in the 1830's

The first contemporary evidence we have of William Winder is his enlistment in the 21st Regiment of Foot in September of 1839.  William's military career will be the subject of multiple posts, but for now suffice it to say that young men like William didn't "go for a soldier" if things were going well in their lives.

Horsley in Gloucestershire where William Winder grew up

Although we don't have many facts about this part of William's life, some reasonable conclusions can be drawn from we do know.  Since William had to make his mark, rather than sign his name, on important documents like a marriage certificate, he clearly had little, if any, formal education.  This would be consistent with his stated occupation of laborer.  Given that he lived in rural Gloucestershire, it's probably not too much of a reach to believe he was primarily an agricultural laborer.  Further support can be drawn from the number of people working in that field (sorry!).  In 1851, more than a decade after William joined the army, there were over one million agricultural laborers in England, fully 25% of all males.

Agricultural Laborers in England about 1832

Perhaps not surprisingly, agricultural laboring was also the lowest paid occupation of the time, in spite of being very hard work.  Today we may have a very idyllic view of farming, but agricultural laborers worked long hours in all kinds of weather, especially during the harvest which became a race against time, not to mention "rain, mud and cold."  Working for days in wet clothing frequently led to bronchitis and rheumatism in addition to regular aches and pains (William died of chronic bronchitis).  Typically someone like William would start doing simple farm tasks as a small boy, gradually taking on harder worker as he got older and bigger.

One of the many problems with this occupation was that the agricultural laborer may have learned do his job, but he typically learned nothing else so that many in Victorian society viewed him as little different than the horses he drove or led.

A Hedger and Ditcher - probably what agricultural laborers looked like after many years on the job

As an agricultural laborer, William most likely had a difficult time earning enough to support himself and/or make a contribution to his family's finances.  To make matters worse a severe six year depression began in 1836-37 leading to what has been called the "grimmest period" of the 19th century.  Aged 16-17 at this time, William would have had an increasingly difficult time finding work of any kind.

Gloucestershire harvest note the number of workers including those on the bales at rear

Some outside help was available in earlier economic downturns through "poor laws" which dated back all the way to 1602 in Elizabethan England.  Under these laws assistance for the sick, aged and unemployed was the responsibility of the local parish and paid for by poor rates (taxes) levied upon the local residents.  Relief took the form of cash payments sometimes even to those who were working in order to be sure everyone in the parish had at least a subsistence income.  In the early 1830's, however, a combination of resistance to increasing poor rates and political beliefs in a free market economy led to the New Poor Law of 1832.  Unlike the cash payments of the old poor laws, the New Poor law required institutionalization in workhouses where families were separated and required to live in intentionally harsh conditions with inadequate food.  Simply put the New Poor law (protested by Charles Dickens in Oliver Twist) couldn't deal with increasing numbers of men and women who wanted to work, but couldn't find anyone who would hire them..

The New Poor Law 

Not surprisingly many workers claimed they would rather die than subject themselves and their families to the workhouse.  It's also no wonder that emigration or at least leaving Horsley became a preferable alternative for many.  By 1851 Horsley and neighboring Nailsworth had lost 1/3 of their population.  Some Window families took "advantage" of sponsored emigration programs to Australia and I have been in contact with people there who are very likely our relatives.  William Winder also left Horsley and he too would end up in Asia, but in his case, it would be in India, wearing the red coat of a British soldier.

Climbing the Family Tree

In April of 2000, Carol and I were on the final day of a two week visit to England, primarily devoted to climbing the family tree.  The plan was to spend the last two days in London, sightseeing and shopping, but as the second day wore on, I realized there was one more family issue I could resolve, William Winder's death date.  2000 wasn't that long ago, but it was before Internet subscription services like ancestry.com provided easy access to such information without leaving home, much less the country.  As a rule research at that time had to be done on site or by paying someone else to do it.

Based on the prior day's visit to the Family Research Centre, I knew there were quarterly indexes of all deaths since 1837.  William Winder was still alive in 1881 so "all" I needed to do was go through the indexes bound in large ledger books which looked like they had come directly from Scrooge and Marley's counting house. Gamely I started with 1881 and began working my way forward.  It took almost an hour, but I finally found the death of William Winder in the first quarter of 1891.  As I replaced the ledger, I realize I could now order a copy of his death certificate.  My first reaction was why bother, it would cost about $15 and I already had the information.

William Winder's Death Certificate

In the end I opted to have a complete record and I was more that a little surprised when the certificate arrived a few weeks later.  As shown above, William was a pensioner from the British army.  I was well aware of a large gap in William's life from his birth in 1822 to the 1871 census, but it never occurred to me or any paid researcher that a lot of the gap could be explained by military service.   Military service was very rare at the time, only about 1% of the population ever served in the army.  With this information I found a British researcher specializing in military records and more of the details got filled in.  William had actually served with three different regiments (21st, 29th and 80th) in a 21 year plus military career, most of which was spent in India.

1871 Census listing for William Winder and family

I should have realized from this experience that William's story is full of surprises, something I learned again while preparing to write about his life.  Because William was born 15-20 years prior to the keeping of detailed census information and vital statistics, the only "facts," we have about his early years come from sources much later in his life.  Such information can be less reliable than contemporary data.  On the 1871 census, for example, William told the census taker, he was born in 1822 in Horsley which is in Gloucestershire.  A decade later in 1881, he changed the location to a place called Dourning, also in Gloucestershire which matches the information on his 1861 army discharge papers.  

1881 Census listing for William and Mary Winder

Although this is helpful information, it also raises more questions than it answers.  Since the civil registration of births was not required until 1837, the only source of birth information for 1822 is the International Genealogical Index, a compilation of baptisms in English parish records.  A search of the IGI for the birth of a William Winder in Horsley around 1822 found nothing.  In fact, there is no record in the IGI for anyone named Winder at this time, anyplace in Gloucestershire.  In addition, there is no place in Gloucestershire named Dourning.  There is, however, a small settlement in the parish of Horsely called Downend and William's discharge papers do say "Dourning" was near Horsley.  And while there is no record of anyone named Winder, there are a number of families named Window, a fairly common name in the area.

A physical description of William Winder in 1861

While it cannot be proven with anything near 100% certainty, it appears William Winder was actually William Window and the name was either changed (intentionally or not) or corrupted to Winder.  Although I thought differently at first, my inclination is to believe that the change was not intentional.  The primary argument for intentional change is William's enlistment in the British army which was sometimes a way to get out of trouble. However, if one was going to change his/her name for deceptive reasons, the change would more likely have been more extensive, not just the last two letters.  More important is the fact that William was illiterate, making a mark on both his discharge papers and his marriage certificate.  As a result his last name could easily have been spelled incorrectly on an official document by an official who couldn't understand William's accent and William was in no position to spell it for him.

Downend - A settlement in Horsley, Gloucestershire

So again, while it can't be proven, we will proceed on the basis that William Window, somehow became William Winder.  According to the IGI, only two William Windows were born in Horsley around 1820.  The best candidate, or so I thought, was a William Window born in 1822, the son of Thomas Window and Ann Cox.  However recent information, that I should have found sooner, proves beyond question that this was not "our William."  The remaining candidate is a William Window born in 1819 to William Window and Anna Maria Ricketts.  Predictably this is not an exact fit as "our William," always said he was born in 1822, not 1819 and listed his father's occupation as agricultural laborer while the father of the 1819 William was a handloom weaver.  Supposedly during the period, it was not uncommon for people not to know their exact year of birth and I've also read that handloom weavers sometimes worked as agricultural laborers to make ends meet.

St. Martin's Church, Horsley

One less than scientific piece of evidence is that a number of researchers on ancestry.com have the 1819 William in their family tree, but not one of them has any information beyond his birth and baptism.  That would be very consistent with someone who left home and changed his name.  While there is, therefore, evidence supporting William's being the son of William Window and Anna Maria Ricketts, I'm not ready to accept it as conclusive.  So we will proceed with the story of William and his wife, Mary, rather than try to go any further back at this time.  

James R Winder - The Trenton Years

While James probably took some time to establish himself and his family in Trenton, as in Worcester, life in his new country was more than the treadmill of day-to-day existence.  In place of the Ancient Order of Foresters, James became involved, first in fraternal chivalric orders and then in Freemasonry.  By 1896, he was an officer of Couer de Lion Encampment No. 16 of the Knights of Malta and St. John.  No more than two years later, he was both Commander of the organization and chair of a committee planning a regional/national meeting scheduled for Trenton in the fall of 1899.  This involvement continued for the balance of James' life including (along with son, James W) helping to re-incorporate the Encampment as a Chapter of the Knights Templar in 1906.

Trenton Evening Times - June 30, 1906

Involvement in one organization was apparently not sufficient as early in 1904, James was installed as "shepherd" and "trustee" of the Independent Order of Shepherds, Alpha Lodge No 1.  No explanation of the additional commitment survives, but since this organization was co-ed, it may have been a place for father-daughter activity, much like the masons provided father and son opportunities.  Whatever the reason, only six months later, James was elevated to vice-chairman of what the Trenton Evening News called "one of the best lodges in the city."  James did other things with his daughters such as attending an Order of the Eastern Star meeting where he "gave a fitting and appreciated oration" which was followed by some "beautiful soul searching music" by daughter Elsie.

Elsie Winder

According to some research done by Greg LaConte (James' great-great-great grandson and himself a mason), James was also a member of Trenton Masonic Lodge (today's Trenton Cyrus Lodge #5) being initiated in April of 1904, passed in June and raised on July 18th of that same year.  According to Greg's research the masons and fraternal orders have similar core beliefs, but very different ritual and dogma.  Masons use working tools of an operative mason to teach moral values while chivalric orders work towards the same goals through the teachings of the historic orders their names reference.

Trenton Evening Times  - October 19, 1902

Music also continued to play an important part in James' life as he was reported as singing at his and Mary's silver anniversary celebration and at a Shepherd's meeting.  James had also not forgotten the benefits he received as a young man from the Worcester School of Art.  Only about 15 months before his death, a list of 63 of the "most prominent gentlemen in the city" attending  a dinner supporting the Trenton School of the Arts included James R. Winder.  Although the Winder family wasn't getting rich from the Delaware Pottery Company, they had at least enough money to make some small real estate investments in late 1906 and early 1907.  Of these the largest was a project to build a nine unit housing project on Swenson Avenue near Hermitage Avenue in Trenton.  James' partners in this project were another English immigrant family, general contractor James Proctor and his son, Samuel.

The "cakewalk" - a minstrel dance reportedly performed at James and Mary's 25th wedding anniversary

The aforementioned real estate project was not the first nor the most important Winder-Proctor partnership.  In the early years of the 20th century, James William Winder and Mary Elizabeth Proctor fell in love and were married on October 14, 1903.  This is perhaps, symbolic of the coming of age of all four Winder children during the family's first twenty years in Trenton.  By 1910 even Florence, the baby of the family, was married and out on her own.  James W and Elsie had long working careers outside the home, Elsie as a music teacher and James ultimately as a carpenter at C. V. Hills, a Trenton refrigerator manufacturer.  Edith and Florence both married and had three and six children respectively between them.  By 1910 James had six grandchildren with seven to come that he would never know.

As 1910 dawned did James have any sense his life was drawing to a close.  Certainly everyone in the family was reminded of their mortality when James' mother died in February after 10 years in Trenton.  Obviously there is no way to know the answer, but the fact that James had been treated for heart disease suggests he had to have known all was not well.  Equally clearly, however, James and his family began that fateful day as if it were an ordinary Saturday.

James and Mary Winder's grave - Riverview Cemetery in Trenton

What, if anything, did he think about in those last minutes and hours?  We can only hope he had a sense of satisfaction about how well he had used what must have seemed like a short 53 plus years.  Rising from very humble beginnings, James became a skilled craftsman and served his community while starting and providing for a family in England.  Having done all that once, he and his wife had the courage and faith to move more than 3000 miles and start over, making a better life, not only for their children, but for all of us who are fortunate enough to be their descendants.  Many of his gifts and interests, like music and fraternal orders continue among us today over a century after his death.  James R. Winder may not have had the longest life, but no one can question that he used his time wisely and well.

James R. Winder - The New World

                                            Old Barge Office - Lower Manhattan

As noted in prior posts, there is no documentation of when and where James R arrived in the United States.  Since Ellis Island opened on January 1, 1892 and James does not appear on any of the records for that facility, it seems safe to believe he arrived in late 1891.  While it is possible he took a ship to Philadelphia which was closer to his ultimate destination, it still seems more likely he first arrived in New York City since there were more regular voyages to that city.  If so, then he was one of the last groups of immigrants to be processed through the Old Barge Office which was the New York City immigrant reception center after Castle Garden and before Ellis Island.  After completing the immigration process and, relatively unhampered by a language barrier,  James most likely took the ferry from Manhattan to Hoboken or Jersey City before boarding a train for Trenton.  Obviously his first need was a place to stay and his first documented residence was at 41 Southard Street where he most likely stayed until the rest of the family arrived the following spring.

                                                  Trenton Directory - 1892

In moving from Worcester to Trenton, James was coming to a larger and faster growing city.  Trenton's population in 1890 was over 57,000 compared to almost 43,000 in Worcester a year later.  While Worcester had grown by almost 10,000 in people during James' 30 years in the city, this paled in comparison with Trenton where the population had grown by three times as many over the same period, making it the 50th largest city in the United States.  This rapid growth was due in no small part to the same reason that accounted for James' presence in Trenton.  Aided by favorable access to both raw materials and the New York and Philadelphia markets plus the previously mentioned tariff protection, in 1890,Trenton had 37 pottery firms employing over 4200 workers compared to only 14 firms with less than 1000 workers only 20 years earlier.  As an experienced and skilled pottery worker, James would clearly have no problem finding work.

Trenton Evening Times - December 24, 1891

Trenton's industrial growth and expanding population led to a strong local economy.  As James established himself, he could draw on the services of 82 barbers, 57 boot and shoe makers, 67 butchers, over 100 cigar stores, not to mention 20 dentists (not counting two horse dentists) and 17 Chinese laundries.  New things were going on as well with the December 26, 1891 dedication of the Battle of Trenton monument on the 115th anniversary of the battle and the impending opening of new chambers for the State Assembly.  Trenton in 1891, however, was not utopia.  A fire right before Christmas destroyed the Crescent Pottery works costing employees wages needed for the Christmas holidays and the colder winter months.  More importantly for James, he arrived in the city in the midst of an epidemic of grippe or influenza.  Accounts in the December 31 edition of the Trenton Evening Times claimed record levels of illness and death from the disease reportedly worsened by mild weather.

 Portion of 1890's Map of Trenton Showing the Delaware Pottery and Rutherford Avenue

No information has been found about James' first pottery employment, but since at his death, he was described as a long time employee of the Delaware Pottery Company, it's not unreasonable to think that was his sole place of employment.  The premise is supported by the fact that when Mary and the children arrived in early 1892, they moved to Rutherford Avenue a short walk from the pottery company.  Technically the Delaware Pottery Company was part of the merged Trenton Pottery Company or TEPCO, but this was a horizontal merger which left the five original companies operating on what appears to be a stand-alone basis.  The company was a manufacturer of sanitary ware (sinks, toilets, bathtubs etc.) which was a thriving part of the American and, therefore, Trenton pottery industry.  While making toilets for a living sounds humorous to us today, increased demand for sanitation and the convenience of indoor plumbing made the business profitable and somewhat protected from the economic downturn of the 1890's.

                                          
                                                  Solid Porcelain Bathtub

In addition "skilled handwork" was more important in sanitary ware than general ware so there was no lack of professional pride in the trade.  Perhaps starting as a mouldmaker and then moving to modeling, James professional work required the skill and strength to make the multiple parts of a piece of sanitary ware.  The year before James arrived in Trenton, over 3800 English immigrants made up 40% of Trenton's pottery workforce and they were reportedly "crucial to Trenton's sanitary potteries."  Only two years after James' moved to the United States, U. S. sanitary ware was considered to be better than European brands and "dominated the American market."  It's no surprise then that as the 19th century moved to a close, Trenton made 86% of the country's sanitary ware and that TEPCO (including Delaware Pottery) made 40% of Trenton's production

         Portion of the 1900 Census showing the Winder family including James' mother

While overall, James and family were in a good economic situation, there were still bumps in the road.  Demand for sanitary ware fluctuated with the housing market and both economic downturns and labor strife were also problems.  In spite of these challenges, the move had to have been a positive financial change as Mary no longer worked outside the home and they were able to take in James' mother when she came to the United States in 1899.  At that point, the family was renting 300 Rutherford Avenue before buying their own home at 331 on the same street.  In that same year only 1/3 of Trenton's pottery workers owned their own homes.  Not only did James and Mary own their own residence, but it was debt free.  In 1914, four years after James' death, sanitary workers made an average of $714 per year, some 26% more than the average New Jersey worker and James clearly put his income to good use.